Acute and Critical Care

Review Article

Pulmonary
Beyond survival: understanding post-intensive care syndrome: Lovish Gupta, Maazen Naduthra Subair, Jaskaran Munjal, Bhupinder Singh, Vasu Bansal, Vasu Gupta, Rohit Jain; Acute Crit Care. 2024;39(2):226-233. Published online May 24, 2024; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2023.01158

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Abstract PDF: Post-intensive care syndrome (PICS) refers to persistent or new onset physical, mental, and neurocognitive complications that can occur following a stay in the intensive care unit. PICS encompasses muscle weakness; neuropathy; cognitive deficits including memory, executive, and attention impairments; post-traumatic stress disorder; and other mood disorders. PICS can last long after hospital admission and can cause significant physical, emotional, and financial stress for patients and their families. Several modifiable risk factors, such as duration of sepsis, delirium, and mechanical ventilation, are associated with PICS. However, due to limited awareness about PICS, these factors are often overlooked. The objective of this paper is to highlight the pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnostic methods, and available preventive and treatment options for PICS.

Original Article

Nursing
Effectiveness of massage and range of motion exercises on muscle strength and intensive care unit-acquired weakness in Iranian patients with COVID-19: a randomized parallel-controlled trial: Mohammad Ali Zakeri, Adnan Rashid Aziz, Elham Rahiminezhad, Mahlagha Dehghan; Acute Crit Care. 2024;39(1):78-90. Published online December 13, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2023.00416

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Background
Muscle weakness is prevalent in intensive care patients. This study focused on comparing the effects of massage and range of motion (ROM) exercises on muscle strength and intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICU-AW) among patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Methods: This study was a randomized clinical trial that recruited patients (n=45) with COVID-19 admitted to the ICU and divided them into three groups (ROM exercises, massage, and control). We evaluated muscle strength and ICU-AW in the arms and legs using a hand dynamometer. The Medical Research Council sum score was determined before and after the intervention. Results: The study findings were that 0%, 20%, and 100% of the participants in the ROM exercises, massage, and control groups had ICU-AW on the 7th day of ICU admission. The ROM exercise group had greater muscle strength in the hands and legs than the massage and control groups, and the massage group had greater muscle strength than the control group. Conclusions: Massage and ROM exercises could improve muscle strength and reduce ICU-AW in COVID-19 patients admitted to the ICU.

Review Article

Surgery
Early detection and assessment of intensive care unit-acquired weakness: a comprehensive review: Hanan Elkalawy, Pavan Sekhar, Wael Abosena; Acute Crit Care. 2023;38(4):409-424. Published online November 30, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2023.00703

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Abstract PDF

Intensive care unit-acquired weakness (ICU-AW) is a serious complication in critically ill patients. Therefore, timely and accurate diagnosis and monitoring of ICU-AW are crucial for effectively preventing its associated morbidity and mortality. This article provides a comprehensive review of ICU-AW, focusing on the different methods used for its diagnosis and monitoring. Additionally, it highlights the role of bedside ultrasound in muscle assessment and early detection of ICU-AW. Furthermore, the article explores potential strategies for preventing ICU-AW. Healthcare providers who manage critically ill patients utilize diagnostic approaches such as physical exams, imaging, and assessment tools to identify ICU-AW. However, each method has its own limitations. The diagnosis of ICU-AW needs improvement due to the lack of a consensus on the appropriate approach for its detection. Nevertheless, bedside ultrasound has proven to be the most reliable and cost-effective tool for muscle assessment in the ICU. Combining the Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) II score assessment, and ultrasound can be a convenient approach for the early detection of ICU-AW. This approach can facilitate timely intervention and prevent catastrophic consequences. However, further studies are needed to strengthen the evidence.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Characteristics of the Cerebrospinal Fluid in Septic Patients with Critical Illness Polyneuropathy - A Retrospective Cohort Study
Yanyang Zhang, Jinfu Ma, Qing Zhao, Hui Liu
The Journal of Critical Care Medicine.2024; 10(2): 130. CrossRef
Advancing critical care recovery: The pivotal role of machine learning in early detection of intensive care unit-acquired weakness
Georges Khattar, Elie Bou Sanayeh
World Journal of Clinical Cases.2024; 12(21): 4455. CrossRef
Construction and evaluation of acquired weakness nomogram model in patients with mechanical ventilation in intensive care unit
Chen Lu, Jiang Wenjuan
DIGITAL HEALTH.2024;[Epub] CrossRef

Original Articles

CPR/Resuscitation
Lower limb muscle matters in patients with hypoxic brain injury following out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: Dong-Hyun Jang, Seung Min Park, Dong Keon Lee, Dong Won Kim, Chang Woo Im, You Hwan Jo, Kui Ja Lee; Acute Crit Care. 2023;38(1):104-112. Published online February 27, 2023; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2022.01389

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Background
There are conflicting results regarding the association between body mass index and the prognosis of cardiac arrest patients. We investigated the association of the composition and distribution of muscle and fat with neurologic outcomes at hospital discharge in successfully resuscitated out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) patients. Methods: This prospective, single-centre, observational study involved adult OHCA patients, conducted between April 2019 and June 2021. The ratio of total skeletal muscle, upper limb muscle, lower limb muscle, and total fat to body weight was measured using InBody S10, a bioimpedance analyser, after achieving the return of spontaneous circulation. Restricted cubic spline curves with four knots were used to examine the relationship between total skeletal muscle, upper limb muscle, and lower limb muscle relative to total body weight and neurologic outcome at discharge. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to assess an independent association. Results: A total of 66 patients were enrolled in the study. The proportion of total muscle and lower limb muscle positively correlated with the possibility of having a good neurologic outcome. The proportion of lower limb muscle showed an independent association in the multivariable analysis (adjusted odds ratio, 2.29; 95% confidence interval, 1.06–13.98), and its optimal cut-off value calculated through receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was 23.1%, which can predict a good neurological outcome. Conclusions: A higher proportion of lower limb muscle to body weight was independently associated with the probability of having a good neurologic outcome in OHCA patients.

Pulmonary
Agreement between two methods for assessment of maximal inspiratory pressure in patients weaning from mechanical ventilation: Emanuelle Olympia Silva Ribeiro, Rik Gosselink, Lizandra Eveline da Silva Moura, Raissa Farias Correia, Wagner Souza Leite, Maria das Graças Rodrigues de Araújo, Armele Dornelas de Andrade, Daniella Cunha Brandão, Shirley Lima Campos; Acute Crit Care. 2022;37(4):592-600. Published online October 27, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2022.00325

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Abstract PDF: Background
Respiratory muscle strength in patients with an artificial airway is commonly assessed as the maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) and is measured using analogue or digital manometers. Recently, new electronic loading devices have been proposed to measure respiratory muscle strength. This study evaluates the agreement between the MIPs measured by a digital manometer and those according to an electronic loading device in patients being weaned from mechanical ventilation. Methods: In this prospective study, the standard MIP was obtained using a protocol adapted from Marini, in which repetitive inspiratory efforts were performed against an occluded airway with a one-way valve and were recorded with a digital manometer for 40 seconds (MIPDM). The MIP measured using the electronic loading device (MIPELD) was obtained from repetitively tapered flow resistive inspirations sustained for at least 2 seconds during a 40-second test. The agreement between the results was verified by a Bland-Altman analysis. Results: A total of 39 subjects (17 men, 55.4±17.7 years) was enrolled. Although a strong correlation between MIPDM and MIPELD (R=0.73, P<0.001) was observed, the Bland-Altman analysis showed a high bias of –47.4 (standard deviation, 22.3 cm H2O; 95% confidence interval, –54.7 to –40.2 cm H2O). Conclusions: The protocol of repetitively tapering flow resistive inspirations to measure the MIP with the electronic loading device is not in agreement with the standard protocol using one-way valve inspiratory occlusion when applied in poorly cooperative patients being weaned from mechanical ventilation.

Neurology
Muscle Growth and Anabolism in Intensive Care Survivors (GAINS) trial: a pilot randomised controlled trial: Matthew H Anstey, Rashmi Rauniyar, Ethan Fitzclarence, Natalie Tran, Emma Osnain, Bianca Mammana, Angela Jacques, Robert N Palmer, Andrew Chapman, Bradley Wibrow; Acute Crit Care. 2022;37(3):295-302. Published online June 27, 2022; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2021.01767

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Abstract PDF Supplementary Material: Background
To explore the feasibility, safety, and potential benefits of administration of the anabolic steroid nandrolone to patients in the recovery phase from critical illness weakness.
Methods
In this phase II, double blind, randomized, controlled trial, adult critically ill patients admitted to one of two tertiary Intensive Care Units in Western Australia for longer than 7 days with significant weakness were enrolled. Patients received nandrolone (200 mg males, 100 mg females) intramuscularly or placebo weekly for up to 3 weeks in addition to standard care. The primary outcome measures were improvement in grip strength, Medical Research Council muscle strength sum score, and functional activity level (Chelsea critical care assessment tool [CPAx]).
Results
A total of 22 patients was enrolled between September 2017 and May 2019. No significant adverse events were detected. Median grip strength change was non-significantly greater in the nandrolone group (8.5 vs. 13.0, P=0.185), while hospital length of stay (36 vs. 26 days, P=0.023) and duration of mechanical ventilation (377 vs. 168, P=0.032) were lower. The discharge CPAx and intensive care unit mobility scores were higher in the nandrolone group, although there was no difference in the change in CPAx score (17.0 vs. 17.7, P=0.865). There were no changes in ultrasound-detected muscle thickness between the two groups.
Conclusions
In patients with prolonged critical illness, nandrolone appears to be safe. However, a larger study, potentially combined with resistance exercise, is needed to definitively address the potential benefits of nandrolone.

Neurology
The Effect of Electrical Muscle Stimulation and In-bed Cycling on Muscle Strength and Mass of Mechanically Ventilated Patients: A Pilot Study: Kyeongyoon Woo, Jeongmin Kim, Hye Bin Kim, Hyunwoo, Choi, Kibum Kim, Donghyung Lee, Sungwon Na; Acute Crit Care. 2018;33(1):16-22. Published online February 14, 2017; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/acc.2017.00542

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Abstract PDF

Background
Critically ill patients experience muscle weakness, which leads to functional disability. Both functional electrical stimulation (FES) and in-bed cycling can be an alternative measure for intensive care unit (ICU) patients who are not feasible for active exercise. The aim of this study was to examine whether FES and in-bed cycling have a positive effect on muscle mass in ICU patients.
Methods
Critically ill patients who received mechanical ventilation for at least 24 hours were included. After passive range of motion exercise, in-bed cycling was applied for 20 minutes, and FES was applied for 20 minutes on the left leg. The right leg received in-bed cycling and the left leg received both FES and in-bed cycling. Thigh circumferences and rectus femoris cross-sectional area (CSA) were assessed with ultrasonography before and after the intervention. Muscle strength was assessed by Medical Research Council scale.
Results
A total of 10 patients were enrolled in this study as a pilot study. Before and after the intervention, the CSA of right rectus femoris increased from 5.08 ± 1.51 cm² to 6.01 ± 2.21 cm² , which was statistically significant (P = 0.003). The thigh circumference was also increased and statistically significant (P = 0.006). There was no difference between left and right in regard to FES application. There is no significant change in muscle strength before and after the intervention (right and left, P = 0.317 and P = 0.368, respectively).
Conclusions
In-bed cycling increased thigh circumferences rectus femoris CSA. Adding FES did not show differences.

Citations

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Assisted mobilisation in critical patients with COVID-19
M. Polastri, F. Daniele, F. Tagariello
Pulmonology.2024; 30(2): 152. CrossRef
Ultrasound for measurement of skeletal muscle mass quantity and muscle composition/architecture in critically ill patients: A scoping review on studies' aims, methods, and findings
Júlia Lima, Estéfani Foletto, Rafaella C.B. Cardoso, Charlles Garbelotto, Aline P. Frenzel, Juliana U. Carneiro, Larissa S. Carpes, Thiago G. Barbosa-Silva, Maria Cristina Gonzalez, Flávia M. Silva
Clinical Nutrition.2024; 43(1): 95. CrossRef
Current Concepts in Early Mobilization of Critically Ill Patients Within the Context of Neurologic Pathology
Thaís Ferreira Lopes Diniz Maia, Paulo André Freire Magalhães, Dasdores Tatiana Silva Santos, Jorge Luiz de Brito Gomes, Paulo Adriano Schwingel, Aline de Freitas Brito
Neurocritical Care.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Anabolic Strategies for ICU-Acquired Weakness. What Can We Learn from Bodybuilders?
Jakub Tarnawski, Maja Czub, Marta Dymecki, Medha Sunil, Marcin Folwarski
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Masatoshi Naruse, Scott Trappe, Todd A. Trappe
Journal of Applied Physiology.2022; 132(5): 1267. CrossRef
Rehabilitation Therapy after the COVID-19 Era: Focused on Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation
Hyung Ik Shin
Annals of CardioPulmonary Rehabilitation.2021; 1(1): 17. CrossRef
Rehabilitation Programs for Bedridden Patients with Prolonged Immobility: A Scoping Review Protocol
Vitor Parola, Hugo Neves, Filipa Margarida Duque, Rafael A. Bernardes, Remy Cardoso, Carla A. Mendes, Liliana B. Sousa, Paulo Santos-Costa, Cândida Malça, Rúben Durães, Pedro Parreira, João Apóstolo, Arménio Cruz
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.2021; 18(22): 12033. CrossRef
Non-paretic lower limb muscle wasting during acute phase is associated with dependent ambulation in patients with stroke
Masafumi Nozoe, Masashi Kanai, Hiroki Kubo, Miho Yamamoto, Shinichi Shimada, Kyoshi Mase
Journal of Clinical Neuroscience.2020; 74: 141. CrossRef
Intensive Care Unit-Acquired Weakness: Not Just Another Muscle Atrophying Condition
Heta Lad, Tyler M. Saumur, Margaret S. Herridge, Claudia C. dos Santos, Sunita Mathur, Jane Batt, Penney M. Gilbert
International Journal of Molecular Sciences.2020; 21(21): 7840. CrossRef
Problems with Rehabilitation for Critically ill Patients
Masaji Nishimura
The Japanese Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine.2019; 56(1): 48. CrossRef
Exploring the Potential Effectiveness of Combining Optimal Nutrition With Electrical Stimulation to Maintain Muscle Health in Critical Illness: A Narrative Review
Selina M. Parry, Lee‐anne S. Chapple, Marina Mourtzakis
Nutrition in Clinical Practice.2018; 33(6): 772. CrossRef

Case Reports

Pharmacology
Recurrent Desaturation Events due to Opioid-Induced Chest Wall Rigidity after Low Dose Fentanyl Administration: Sung Yeon Ham, Bo Ra Lee, Taehoon Ha, Jeongmin Kim, Sungwon Na; Korean J Crit Care Med. 2016;31(2):118-122. Published online May 31, 2016; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/kjccm.2016.31.2.118

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Abstract PDF

Opioid-induced chest wall rigidity is an uncommon complication of opioids. Because of this, it is often difficult to make a differential diagnosis in a mechanically ventilated patient who experiences increased airway pressure and difficulty with ventilation. A 76-year-old female patient was admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) after surgery for periprosthetic fracture of the femur neck. On completion of the surgery, airway pressure was increased, and oxygen saturation fell below 95% after a bolus dose of fentanyl. After ICU admission, the same event recurred. Manual ventilation was immediately started, and a muscle relaxant relieved the symptoms. There was no sign or symptom suggesting airway obstruction or asthma on physical examination. Early recognition and treatment should be made in a mechanically ventilated patient experiencing increased airway pressure in order to prevent further deterioration.

Citations

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Fentanyl-Induced Rigid Chest Syndrome in Critically Ill Patients
Alison J. Tammen, Donald Brescia, Dan Jonas, Jeremy L. Hodges, Philip Keith
Journal of Intensive Care Medicine.2023; 38(2): 196. CrossRef
Effects of fentanyl overdose-induced muscle rigidity and dexmedetomidine on respiratory mechanics and pulmonary gas exchange in sedated rats
Philippe Haouzi, Nicole Tubbs
Journal of Applied Physiology.2022; 132(6): 1407. CrossRef
Challenges in Sedation Management in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: a Brief Review
Kunal Karamchandani, Rajeev Dalal, Jina Patel, Puneet Modgil, Ashley Quintili
Current Anesthesiology Reports.2021; 11(2): 107. CrossRef
A Case of Masseter Muscle Rigidity during Awake Intubation under Remifentanil Infusion
Tomoki YAMAGA, Takeshi NEGITA, Masayo SUGIURA, Nobuyuki KIMURA
THE JOURNAL OF JAPAN SOCIETY FOR CLINICAL ANESTHESIA.2019; 39(3): 274. CrossRef
Opioids and Chest Wall Rigidity During Mechanical Ventilation
Jeffrey P. Roan, Navin Bajaj, Field A. Davis, Natalie Kandinata
Annals of Internal Medicine.2018; 168(9): 678. CrossRef

Muscular Rigidity and Pulmonary Edema Following Administration of Low Dose Fentanyl: A Case Report: Sung Kyu Rim, Jong Il Kim, Yu Bin Son, Ji Heui Lee; Korean J Crit Care Med. 2012;27(3):197-201.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/kjccm.2012.27.3.197

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Abstract PDF

Fentanyl-induced muscular rigidity has been reported exclusively in patients when large fentanyl dosages were employed in the operating room or in the pediatric intensive care unit. Rigidity and pulmonary edema after analgesic doses of fentanyl had not been reported previously. A 25-year-old man underwent removal of a foreign body and application of an Ilizarov frame of tibia under general anesthesia. The patient received 100 microg of fentanyl during emergence of anesthesia and the procedure of dressing. On arrival to the anesthetic recovery room, the patient presented with muscular rigidity and about 1 hour later, developed pulmonary edema. The notable predisposing factors were rapid injection of fentanyl and history of treatment with antidepressants and haloperidol, modifiers of serotonin and dopamine levels. From this case, we suggest the need for careful observation for the development of muscle rigidity complicating airway management in patients taking antidepressants and antipsychotics, especially after administration of an analgesic dose of fentanyl.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by

Recurrent Desaturation Events due to Opioid-Induced Chest Wall Rigidity after Low Dose Fentanyl Administration
Sung Yeon Ham, Bo Ra Lee, Taehoon Ha, Jeongmin Kim, Sungwon Na
Korean Journal of Critical Care Medicine.2016; 31(2): 118. CrossRef

Reviews

Muscle Relaxants in Critically Ill Patients with Renal Disease: Jin Young Chon; Korean J Crit Care Med. 2012;27(3):145-150.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/kjccm.2012.27.3.145

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Abstract PDF: Critical illness often results in renal dysfunction. Renal disease includes acid base imbalance, electrolyte shift and neuromuscular disturbances in critically ill patients, who are influenced by the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of muscle relaxants, with kidney dependent metabolism and excretion. In terms of renal dysfunction, not only decreased circulating levels of normal cholinesterase, but also cholinesterase depletion after plasmapheresis and dialysis draw the attention of clinicians, when administering a muscle relaxant to critically ill patients who are compromised with renal function. These patients have a lower clearance of renal excreted drugs, changes of the volume of distribution, water retention, and pH changes that alter the protein bond and degree of ionization of the drugs. Immobilization of the limb and respiratory muscles, leading to muscle atrophy and the up-regulation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, associated with critical illness, is observed in many patients hospitalized in the intensive care unit with renal dysfunction. Disease related conditions or iatrogenically induced factors, including sedation, lead to immobilization of skeletal muscles. Aside from systemic inflammation, immobilization is a key contributing factor to the development of critical illness myopathy. Physicians who care for critically ill patients with renal dysfunction should pay attention to the adequate choice of muscle relaxants and their antagonists.

Mechanisms of Muscle Wasting in Patients with Sepsis: Gi Dong Lee, Ho Cheol Kim; Korean J Crit Care Med. 2010;25(1):9-15.; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4266/kjccm.2010.25.1.9

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Abstract PDF

Muscle wasting is commonly seen in patients with sepsis as a consequence of the catabolic response in skeletal muscle. Muscle wasting can occur in cases that have an imbalance between degradation and synthesis of muscle proteins. Although decrements in the synthesis of muscle proteins may contribute to sepsis-induced muscle wasting, it has been recognized that increments in its degradation play a more essential role in muscle wasting. Muscle wasting in sepsis patients has some significant clinical consequences such as reduced ambulation and exercise tolerance, and an increased risk for pulmonary and thromboembolic complications. Several mechanisms have been proposed for sepsis-induced muscle wasting. Increased proteolysis via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and the calpains system is one of the principal mechanisms of muscle wasting induced by sepsis. Calpains are activated by calcium, which increases in patients with sepsis. The activation of the calpains system disrupts the sarcomere of the myofibrils, resulting in the release of myofilaments that are subsequently ubiquitinated and degraded by the 26S proteasome complex. Recent studies have suggested that transcriptional factors such as NF-kappaB and FoxO, and the apoptosis and autophagy-lysosome pathways may also be involved in sepsis-induced muscle wasting. This review briefly summarizes the contribution of these mechanisms of muscle wasting in patients with sepsis and the possible therapeutic agents to treat it.

Citations

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Role of IL-15 in Sepsis-Induced Skeletal Muscle Atrophy and Proteolysis
Ho Cheol Kim, Hee-Young Cho, Young-Sool Hah
Tuberculosis and Respiratory Diseases.2012; 73(6): 312. CrossRef

Randomized Controlled Trial

Succinylcholine-Induced Fasciculation is Prevented by Mivacurium-Precurarization: Kum Hee Chung, Jeong Wan Kang, Jong Yeon Lee; Korean J Crit Care Med. 1999;14(1):31-36.

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Abstract PDF: BACKGOUND: Succinylcholine (SCC) injection may be associated with adverse effects including elevated serum potassium (K ) and creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) level, and postoperative myalgia. Many studies have been made to prevent these adverse effects such as pretreatment with non-depolarizing muscle relaxants. The effects of the pretreatment with vecuronium or mivacurium, a new non-depolarizing neuromuscular blocker, on SCC-induced fasciculation, serum K and CPK level was investigated in this study.
METHODS
ASA physical status I or II, 40 patients were allocated randomly into 4 groups. Group I as a control group received SCC 1 mg/kg only, while the other groups were pretreated with vecuronium 0.02 mg/kg (0.4 x ED95) (group II), mivacurium 0.02 mg/kg (0.25 x ED95) (group III) and 0.03 mg/kg (0.4 x ED95) (group IV) before the SCC 1.5 mg/kg injection, respectively. Serum K concentration was measured just before anesthetic induction and 5 minute after SCC injection, and serum CPK was estimated before induction and at 24~36 hours postoperatively. And the fasciculation after SCC injection was graded by Cullen's suggestion.
RESULTS
Serum K concentration was increased in group I and decreased in pretreated groups, but the difference was not significant within each group and between the groups. Serum CPK level was increased in group I, II and IV but these changes were also insignificant between all groups. The grade of SCC-induced fasciculation was attenuated in group II and IV (p<0.05).
CONCLUSIONS
Like vecuronium, mivacurium 0.03 mg/kg is effective to reduce fasciculation after SCC injection, but 0.02 mg/kg is not. However, any complication does not occur in the two dosages.

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